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Construction of defensive walls began during the reign of China’s ‘‘First Emperor,’’ Qin Shi Huang, in 221 B.C.E. These connected sections of preexisting border fortifications of Qin’s defeated and annexed enemies, dating to the Warring States period, from which the Qin empire had emerged as victor. The building technique of this remarkable structure was the […]

The Han were an ethnically Chinese dynasty founded by a soldier who had nothing to lose as he faced execution for late arrival on parade. It was safer to rebel and bring down what was left of the Qin. The Han first emperor Gaodi (206–195 BC) inherited an exhausted state, barely able to defend itself, […]