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The last resistance of the Bersaglieri at Villa Spada (engraving by Carlo Werner) When a Republic was declared in Rome, France sent 8,000 troops under General Charles Oudinot to besiege the city, which was held by 20,000 men, including 5,000 followers of Giuseppe Garibaldi. After an initial repulse, and a second reinforced attack driven off […]

Henry IV and the war of Savoy In exchange for retaining Saluzzo (dotted area, lower center), Savoy was compelled to cede most of its territories on the far side of the Rhône (striped area, upper left) The peace of Vervins was not very well observed on the part of France. The ruling idea which guided […]

In the autumn of 1494 the French King, Charles VIII, launched his famous invasion of Italy, and by February 1495 he was the master of the kingdom of Naples. No one would dispute the importance of this date and these events in Italian history; the political scene was never to be quite the same again. […]

The Battle of Fornovo in the Gallery of Maps (Vatican Museums) The intelligent use of reserves has sometimes been described as one of the distinguishing features of modern military tactics, and the concept was certainly one that had been widely explored by the condottieri. But in this case there was too much emphasis on reserves. […]