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Charles Schulmeister The Napoleonic wars pitted France, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, against a number of countries in Europe from 1797 through 1815. At different times during this period, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, and the Neapolitan Kingdom all waged war against France in various coalitions. The main rivals in this struggle were Great […]

Seamas O’Donovan Although nominally still a member of the Commonwealth, Ireland had declared itself neutral on the outbreak of war. This was tacitly recognised by the British, who appointed Sir John Maffey as a de facto ambassador shortly afterwards. The most immediate threat to Ireland’s neutrality was the IRA, which in 1938 had come under […]

Dolphin was broken throughout the war but the cipher was not used by U-boats after Oct 5, 1941. The British politician the 2nd Viscount Hailsham once said that ‘The one case in which I think I can see the finger of God in contemporary history is Churchill’s arrival at the premiership at that precise moment […]